Exercise Canyon

Waterton Canyon, which incises the foothills southwest of Denver, represents the South Platte's final journey through the Rocky Mountains before it rumbles onto the Colorado Piedmont.  Harboring a wealth of scenic rock formations and home to a wide variety of Transition Zone flora and fauna, the canyon has long been a popular destination for hikers, birders, fishermen and naturalists.  Over the past decade or so, it has also become a mecca for bikers and joggers, now comprising at least 75% of the visitors.

While these trail athletes surely enjoy the pristine landscape, at least in a holistic sense, I doubt they pay much attention to the varied plants and animals, focused as they are on distance and time.  As they turdge along, gasping and spitting, or whiz by on their trail bikes, I often wonder if they could identify even a handful of species that inhabit the canyon.  They surely notice the bighorn sheep, for which this refuge is well known, but a fleeting glance is probably sufficient.

In this age of obesity, I certainly have no objection to aerobic exercise.  But I suspect these bikers and joggers choose Waterton Canyon for its graded climb and known distance (6 miles to the Strontia Springs Dam); of course, they also enjoy group exercise and avoid the heavy auto traffic that occurs in other foothill canyons.  Some might conclude that I envy the youth and vitality of these athletes (which is surely true to some extent) but I am more inclined to pity their lack of interest in nature's bounty.  Dogs are not permitted in Waterton Canyon in order to protect the bighorn sheep; perhaps we should limit its use as an athletic training site in order to protect the natural milieu.

The Heart of Champions

As the Olympic Trials wind down and national teams prepare for London, it is clear that there is something special about Olympic athletes.  Like others in their respective sport, they are talented and hard-working individuals who enjoy a good deal of support from family, friends and colleagues.  Yet, these Olympians seem to harbor traits that set them apart.

Despite their success and self-confidence, few (if any) are arrogant or egotistical.  Rather, their achievement reflects their competitive spirit, their courage in the face of adversity and, perhaps most importantly, an unwillingness to concede defeat.  This latter trait, which might be defined as heart, is found in all champions, from race horses to long-distance runners to heavyweight boxers.  When the margin of victory is razor thin or when endurance plays a major role, heart is especially vital.

Of course, this trait is not confined to sports.  While some owe their success to good fortune, most champions of human society possess this same competitive spirit; facing obstacles that discourage their rivals, they have the heart to persevere.  Heart is, indeed, a human trait which seems to require a delicate mix of genetic, familial and cultural factors.  Alas, in most individuals, it never reaches full expression. 

Life in the Universe

Current scientific evidence indicates that the Universe is 13.7 billion years old and that the galaxies formed 12 billion years ago.  Yet, our home star, the sun, is less than 5 billion years old, the Earth  formed just 4.6 billion years ago, unicellular life did not evolve on our planet until 3.6 billion years ago and we humans did not appear until 130,000 years ago.  Countless suns, their solar systems and the life that inhabited their planets likely evolved and disappeared long before our own sun and planet came into existence.

Among the 100 billion galaxies and trillions of stars that stretch across the ever-expanding Universe, there are surely millions of other planets that sustain life which, in many if not most cases, has progressed farther along the evolutionary tree than has life here on Earth.  In other words, it is almost a certainty that many human-like civilizations inhabit this Universe, most of which are more advanced than our own.

It is understandable that religious persons might find these rational facts too threatening to contemplate but it is disconcerting to hear scientists and scientific journalists question whether life exists elsewhere in the Universe.  Sitting here on our smallish planet that circles a modest-sized star on an outer band of a massive galaxy, it is absurd to suggest that we might be the only intelligent beings that inhabit the billions of galaxies.  The Universe surely teems with life and it is only our irrational self-importance that keeps us from embracing that fact.

Industrial Obesity

Not long ago, we humans could not help but get plenty of exercise.  We had to hunt and spend long hours in the fields to obtain our food.  We had to chop wood to heat our homes and carry fresh water from the well or the river.  Travel was by foot or horseback and almost any task involved physical labor.  Perhaps most significant, we did not have televisions or computers to keep us inactive and entertained for hours at a time.

While many studies have demonstrated a higher rate of obesity in westernized countries, much of the focus has been on the dietary changes associated with our mechanized cultures.  But, while the excessive intake of sodas and cheeseburgers and donuts should raise concerns about our nutrition, it is, in my opinion, a less significant factor in the modern scourge of obesity than is our sedentary lifestyle.

Today, almost every technological advancement is designed to make our lives easier.  We may take our morning or evening stroll to get some exercise but most of our day is spent in cars, elevators and desk chairs.  Even farmers and construction workers have a wide range of machinery and tools that limit their physical labor.  Then, at the end of the day, exhausted and stressed, we plop in front of the television for several hours of mindless entertainment, getting up for a snack during commercial breaks.

Colorado's Beetles & Wildfires

After dealing with an overwhelming pine beetle blight for the past few years, Colorado residents now face what, so far, is a devastating fire season.  A modest winter snowpack, combined with a dry spring, has set the stage for lightening and human-induced forest fires.  In addition, the presence of so many dead pine trees will surely exacerbate that threat.

Our human-centric view of nature often leads to false conclusions about man's role in the occurrence of "natural disasters."  Many are quick to blame fire-suppression policies for both the beetle blight and the wildfires while others see the hand of God, a biblical punishment for the ills of human society .  But natural wildfires play a vital role in the maintenance of forest ecosystems, clearing out dead wood, opening the canopy and allowing the seeds of certain trees (lodgepole pines, for example) to germinate.  In like manner, pine bark beetles attack stressed or diseased trees and their massive infestations, which probably occur every century or so, restore forests with a diverse assembly of young, healthy trees.  While it is an unwelcome sight for residents and tourists, the remnant landscape of dead or burned trees is a necessary stage in the life of a forest; unfortunately, when viewed from the perspective of our brief human life span, it appears all too permanent.

Aspen trees, which spread by suckering and take advantage of clearings in the coniferous forests, will likely be the primary beneficiaries of these "disasters" in the short run.  Humans who chose to reside in western forests are among the primary victims, losing pristine scenery if not their homes.  Like those who live on barrier islands or along river floodplains, they were taking a chance; most will be philosophical, acknowledging the risk that comes with living in the Colorado mountains and respecting the natural forces that, over the centuries, mold our landscape.

The Rise of Independence

A recent poll of Americans, reported on the PBS News Hour, revealed that 38% of us identify ourselves as being politically independent; some 32% expressed an affiliation with the Democratic Party while only 24% claimed to be Republicans. I suppose the other 6% are simply apathetic.

In light of ongoing stagnation within the U.S. Congress, it is no wonder that more Americans prefer to be identified as an Independent than to be associated with one of our traditional political parties. But one can hope that this move toward independence also reflects a broader degree of human enlightenment. While our species has a long history of tribalism, first adopted for self defense and later usurped to achieve and maintain power, this trait continues to be a source of discrimination, divisiveness and intolerance. In the spirit of John Lennon's immortal song, imagine a world without countries or religions.

Oppression, after all, has many faces. Its enforcement is not limited to dictators; rather, our freedom is often curtailed by the power of organized religions and entrenched political parties. The rise of independence will, over time, shatter their grip on the soul of humanity.

American Creationists

This week, CNN reported on a recent survey of American adults that revealed almost half of us reject the concept of human evolution and believe that humans were created by God within the past 10,000 years; among Republicans, 60% hold this view. This large contingent of creationists is, to say the least, disturbing to those of us who accept the scientific method as the only legitimate means for solving the mysteries of the Universe and for defining our place within its vast realm.

The results of the survey suggest that two factors are at play. First, scientific education within the U.S. is woefully deficient, even among college-educated adults. Second, the influence of organized religion in America remains very powerful and, despite the copious scientific evidence that supports human evolution, many religious persons either choose to ignore that data or find the ancient, pre-scientific writings of early prophets more convincing. There is little doubt that religious beliefs, ingrained in childhood and sustained by fear and guilt, fuel distrust of science, as they have since the earliest days of human civilization.

The fact that we live on a small planet near the outer edge of a massive galaxy that is one of billions of galaxies in our Universe seems to have no bearing on their belief; neither does the evidence that the Universe is 13.7 billion years old, that Earth is 4.6 billion years old and that life has colonized our planet for 3.6 billion years. If the creationists are correct, God is a very patient deity indeed.

Italy, Earthquakes & Human Nature

After enduring two tragic earthquakes within a span of nine days, residents of northeastern Italy are both distraught and mystified. As emphasized in news reports, that region had not experienced a significant earthquake for hundreds of years. Yet, this industrial valley stretches between the Apennines and the Alps, mountain ranges that owe their very existence to the collision of the African and Eurasian Plates.

This tectonic collision, though too gradual to witness during our brief life span, has been going on for at least 40 million years, producing the varied landscape of southern Europe. A quiescent period of seismic activity in any given area, even lasting hundreds or thousands of years, is to be expected as pressure along the collision zone shifts from one region to another. While we may understand the geologic cause for the earthquakes, our inability to accurately predict the timing of such events has become all too clear over the past few decades; nevertheless, scientists in Italy are facing manslaughter charges for their failure to predict the 2009 quake in the Apennines, east of Rome, which killed more than 300 citizens.

We humans have a tendency to blame others for the misfortunes that we endure, even when they arise from the uncontrollable and, to date, unpredictable natural forces that mold our planet. We also tend to interpret our Universe, distant galaxies or local geography, from the narrow perspective of our human life span. Anyone who resides along the active plate margins of Planet Earth cannot afford to ignore the realities of its past and ongoing geologic evolution, however remote the risk of catastrophe might seem at the present time. After all, the Africa-Eurasian collision has been underway for 40 million years, 400 times longer than our own species has walked the planet.

Faith & Suffering

It seems very likely that religious beliefs first arose in early human clans (some 130,000 years ago) when gods were invoked to counter fear and suffering. After all, our distant ancestors were traumatized by natural catastrophes, brutal weather, predators, mysterious diseases, fatal injuries, famine and tribal warfare on a regular, if not daily, basis.

At some point during our evolution, certainly by three to four thousand years ago, suffering had become more than the impetus for religious ritual; it had become ingrained in the rites themselves. We humans had come to imagine that our gods are appeased by suffering; as a result, human sacrifice, self-inflicted pain and self denial became an essential part of religious ceremony. Even today, despite our advanced scientific knowledge, such attitudes persist, represented by a wide range of beliefs and rituals, from giving up desserts during Lent to volunteering as a suicide bomber. Orders of monks and nuns retreat to lives of fasting and prayer, Catholic priests take vows of celibacy, devout believers lash themselves with reeds or whips and many (if not most) of the faithful view their earthly suffering as a ticket to heavenly rewards.

Of course, if this delusional, suffering-based faith only affected those who practice it, the rest of us would be free to focus on the enlightenment of human culture. Unfortunately, their beliefs permeate human society, stifling education, fomenting warfare, fostering intolerance and instilling fear in younger generations. Worse yet, those who view suffering as a means to salvation are more willing to inflict its scourge on the innocent. One hopes that we will eventually evolve beyond these primitive delusions but our zealous, god-fearing brethren, obsessed with their image of a vindictive deity, are not likely to fade from the scene anytime soon.

The Perspective of Geese

During our travels along the spectacular coast of Lake Superior this week, we encountered a pair of Canada geese, ushering their brood across the unusually calm waters of the lake. West of the roadway was a pristine wetland, stretching out from the mouth of a rushing river; we naturally assumed that the pair had nested within that scenic marsh. Such encounters often make human envious of wildlife, recognizing both their freedom and their capacity to live in beautiful natural landscapes, unencumbered by the responsibilities of the human lifestyle.

On the following day, I saw another pair of geese with their young offspring, resting along a muddy pond in the industrial port of Superior, Wisconsin. Close to a wealth of pristine habitat, far more appealing to the human eye, they had chosen to nest along this unattractive pool, bordered by a litter-strewn lawn. Perhaps, once the goslings fledge, they will move on to a more pristine location but, for now, they appeared to be perfectly comfortable at their ugly urban site.

Unlike most humans, wild creatures focus primarily on their basic needs, not on the physical beauty of their surroundings. While they are far better equipped to wander off to spectacular landscapes that we can only hope to visit, they do not share our obsession with picturesque settings. Of course, neither do they worry about the effects that pollution might have on the welfare of their family; in that respect, they unknowingly depend on the wisdom and commitment of their human neighbors.

Miracle Drugs

Ever since early man discovered natural herbs and resins that seemed to ease his common maladies, we humans have been hooked on drugs. In the modern world, these heavily marketed agents are used to counteract the effects of our sedentary lifestyle or to rescue us from poor choices when it comes to our diet and recreational activities.

Of course, some pharmaceutical products have had a major impact on the health and longevity of the human species: vaccines, antibiotics and chemotherapeutic agents for some cancers (especially childhood leukemias) come immediately to mind. But many of our prescription drugs would not be necessary if we engaged in a healthy lifestyle and they often impose new health problems related to their side effects. Statins, the classic miracle drugs of the past decade or so, have been touted as the ultimate answer to preventing cardiovascular disease and are heavily advertised on American television; yet, within the past few months, evidence has surfaced that associates higher doses of some statins with an increased risk of developing diabetes. And just this week, studies were released that question the long term use of bisphosphonates, drugs used to combat osteoporosis; also heavily marketed on TV, these agents prevent reabsorption of bone, a natural process in the regular remodeling of our skeleton. The new studies reveal that, despite their remarkable effects in the first few years, these agents may be associated with long term effects that could actually increase the risk of future fractures.

These ongoing revelations regarding the long term effects of unnatural chemical agents are hardly a surprise to those of us in the medical profession. We regularly encounter patients who are taking twenty or more drugs, prescribed to combat maladies that are often secondary to inactivity, obesity, tobacco use or the excessive consumption of alcohol. The prevention of disease, including cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis, is best addressed through regular exercise, a healthy, balanced diet and the choice to forgo smoking and other self-inflicted risks. While the use of some medications may become necessary, there is no such thing as a miracle drug.

The Nature of Dissent

Dissent is the fortitude to challenge established doctrine, whether formulated by governments, religious organizations, industry or other social groups. While the leaders of those organizations often view dissent as a threat to their power, it is essential to the development and maintenance of fair and effective policies.

Reasoned and rationale dissent insures that laws are established and imposed without discriminating among social groups, whether based on gender, income, race, culture, religion or other human traits. Though often dismissed as rebellious or unpatriotic, dissent is vital to any democratic system and governments or organizations that attempt to suppress or limit its expression will eventually suffer the consequences.

The steady advance of human knowledge has always been guided by dissent, a willingness to question assumptions that, in the end, proved to be inaccurate. Nevertheless, at each stage of human civilization, social pressure offered resistance to such change and those courageous enough to dissent were persecuted for their ideas. Today, modern society retains that resistance and, while some nations are more democratic than others, the struggle for human enlightenment continues. Reasoned, nonviolent dissent is the key to removing our shackles.

Warfare, Stress & Atrocities

Yet another story of U.S. military misbehavior in Afghanistan has surfaced today, at least the fourth revelation in the past year. Deplored by the Department of Defense, the Military Leadership and other Administration officials, the behavior was decried as an embarrassment to the United States and dismissed as not representative of the vast majority of American soldiers.

Of course, these reactions are expected and serve to assure the American public that such events are rare and that they undermine the goals of our vital mission. While many are shocked to learn of inhumane behavior by our troops, it is likely that these reports merely scratch the surface when it comes to the atrocities witnessed and/or performed by participants in human warfare. Enduring extreme stress, including the possibility of imminent death, it is understandable that soldiers lose touch with the personal boundaries that may have governed their civilian lives. To deny that humans are capable of such acts in the course of warfare is to close our eyes to the conditions under which they serve. It is only the brotherhood of soldiers that keeps us from learning about the majority of these incidents and it is generally through the effects of post-traumatic stress disorder that we catch a small glimpse of the mental anguish that war inflicts on the individual.

Rather than making an attempt to minimize the frequency or severity of the atrocities that occur in warfare, it is best that we publicly recognize both the immediate and long-term effects of combat on mental health and human behavior. The only effective means of eliminating these tragic events is to put an end to needless military intervention. The futility of our ongoing operations in Afghanistan has become clear to most Americans and, hopefully, will discourage similar engagements in the future. The deaths of so many young soldiers and innocent civilians, coupled with the life-long effects on those who survive, cannot justify what few benefits, if any, result from our nation-building crusade. Those who are the most vocal advocates of military intervention are generally those who never faced the extreme stress of warfare.

Nostalgic Birding

When I pull out my old Birds of North America, by Robbins et al., words such as Lonoke, Keo and Scott appear in the margins, indicating first sightings of various birds. These are towns east of Little Rock where my birding jaunts increased significantly in the early 1980s. On my visit to eastern Arkansas this past week I was thus anxious to revisit these areas, recognizing their importance in my life and hoping to relive some of those birding memories.

As one might expect after 30 years, the landscape had changed, though not nearly as much as one might find in large urban areas of the country. Development had taken its toll on some of the fields and wetlands that I had once explored while access to others had been withdrawn. Just west of Lonoke, a large group of man-made catfish ponds had once been the local hotspot for waterfowl viewing and it was there that I first saw many species; while the ponds and ducks remain, "private property" and "no trespassing" signs now rise at every entry point and all viewing must occur from the bordering roadways. Wetlands south of Scott, my favored site for herons, egrets and other waders, are now unrecognizable, surrounded or replaced by housing developments to the point that I could not locate my old birding haunt. Of course, the farmlands that introduced me to many raptors and shorebirds remain intact and, on my visit, a huge flock of lesser golden plovers had stopped to forage on a muddy field.

Such efforts to feed our nostalgic urges often lead to mixed and disappointing results. We humans tend to erase the landscape of our past and, in the case of natural habitats, wildlife that depended on them must relocate or adapt to human development; of course, some fail to do so and their population suffers accordingly. Until we become more committed to the protection of open space, the welfare of our wild neighbors will be threatened and those of us who enjoy their company will be unable to revisit our past.

Urban Tornadoes

Most Americans over age 50 associate tornadoes with open country, posing a risk to cropfields, barns and small, rural communities. We long assumed that these spectacular storms could only develop over flat terrain and that the varied topography of cities would tear them apart.

However, in recent decades, as occurred yesterday in Dallas, we have witnessed an increasing impact of tornadoes on large, urban centers. Some surely see God's hand in this apparent turn of events, punishment for the decadence and sinful behavior of the urban elite; perhaps the storms are directed toward Planned Parenthood Centers or non-Christian communities.

In reality, this increased incidence of urban tornadoes reflects the same process that threatens the Florida panther and corrals prairie dogs into tiny plots across Metro Denver. Suburban sprawl and commercial development are eliminating vast tracts of open space, urban areas are merging with one another and natural habitat is rapidly disappearing. The tornadoes that once tore across prairie, forest and farmland are now cutting swaths of destruction through our ever-expanding cities. As a result, the cost imposed by these storms, both in terms of damage to structures and the loss of human life, will continue to rise.

Visiting the Past

This coming week, my wife and I will visit our home State of Ohio to see relatives and, perhaps, a friend or two. Having lived in other parts of the country for most of our careers, we try to make the pilgrimage at least twice each year.

Of course, most of our old friends have since left Ohio and the urban landscapes have changed dramatically, including the demolition of past apartments and sentimental college hangouts. Nevertheless, driving through old neighborhoods or walking across modern versions of our campuses will remind us of those we left in the past, those who often surface in our memories and, of course, those who still haunt our souls.

There is a great deal of truth to the observation that you can't go home again. But you can still touch base with the landscape of your formative years and, by doing so, come to better understand the person that you have become. Living in the past, with its embellished joy and buried pain, can only produce regret and self-delusion but the past must be acknowledged and appreciated; after all, it has a profound effect on our present and will continue to influence our future.

The Domestication of Animals

We humans have been domesticating animals for the past 12,000 years and they have played a crucial role in the rise of our civilization and in the formation of our varied cultures. We have used and abused animals for food, clothing, transportation, muscle power, laboratory experimentation, pollination, recreation and companionship.

Dogs were the first animals to be domesticated, used by clans of the Middle East for protection and hunting assistance some 12,000 years ago. Goats were domesticated in the Fertile Crescent about 10,000 years ago while sheep and pigs were raised in Turkey and Syria by 9000 years ago. About 8000 years ago, cattle were domesticated in Northern Africa and India, cats joined the households of Egypt and chickens were bred for eggs and meat in Southeast Asia. As the horse was domesticated by tribes of central Asia, some 6000 years ago, the Incas were utilizing llamas in the Andes of South America and donkeys were brought under human rule in Northern Africa, soon to be joined by camel caravans. Ducks were raised in Southeast Asia by 5000 years ago, guinea pigs were domesticated in the Andes 4500 years ago and elephants were pressed into service in India about 4000 years ago. Caribou were domesticated across the Arctic about 3000 years ago, turkeys were raised in Mexico 2000 years ago, honey bees were brought under control in Europe 1500 years ago, goldfish were farmed in China 1000 years ago and rabbits were domesticated in Europe by 500 years ago.

Looking at our pampered dogs and cats, better fed than many human populations, we sometimes glorify our relationship with the other animals that share this planet. Yet, as vital as many have been to the survival of our species, we have not often treated them with the dignity that they deserve. The abuse of animals on industrialized farms and in scientific labs has been a blight on our culture and must be addressed if we are to earn our self-proclaimed title of Earth's stewards.

Education, Liberalism & Faith

Rick Santorum's proclamation that higher education indoctrinates students with godless, liberal ideology unleashed a political firestorm among Democrats, Independents and moderate Republicans; of course, his disrespectful style, labeling President Obama a snob, did not help his cause. Nevertheless, there is some truth to Santorum's message that he may not wish to acknowledge.

There is little doubt that education and religious faith have an inverse relationship, especially when one defines faith by the rigid dogma of most Western religions. Though some studies refute the fact that liberalism and agnosticism (or atheism) are more common in the college-educated population, I suspect that these associations do prevail in certain fields of study. As a physician, I know many medical professionals who remain devoted to their Church but the great majority do so with a liberalized view of social issues, including birth control; they and other social service professionals come to appreciate the complex nature of community health, having witnessed the effects of poverty and family dysfunction first hand. And, as a naturalist, academically trained in biology and medicine and self educated in geology and natural history, I'm confident that those persons highly trained in the natural sciences are far more likely to be agnostic or atheistic when compared to members of the general population.

Knowledge both improves our understanding of life's many mysteries and feeds our curiosity. The more we learn about any subject, the less likely we are to settle for simplistic, mystical and unproven theories of the laws that govern it; education broadens our perspective, enabling us to see the grays that exist between the blacks and whites on which religious conservatives tend to focus. Since religion evolved from a desire to define our place in the natural world, its rigid doctrines are least palatable to those who have an in-depth knowledge of the natural sciences.

The Cost of Intelligence

We humans differ from "lower" mammals in several ways: the complexity of our large brains, our upright posture, our manual dexterity and our capacity for articulate speech. Our intelligence, the product of our complex brain, affords many advantages, including our ability to reason, imagine, theorize, create, communicate and plan, among many other cognitive functions. This brain power also comes with a price.

Relative to other mammals, we humans undergo slow physical development and remain highly dependent upon our parents for a decade or more. While this provides a wealth of vital experience for our developing brains, it puts us at risk for an early death; of course, this was especially true before the era of modern technology and medicine, when children were exposed to a wide variety of natural threats. Furthermore, our slow physical development delays sexual maturity, reducing the capacity of human populations to recover from catastrophic events.

On a more personal level, intelligence produces a source of stress that is not experienced by other mammals. Humans must deal with the effects of regret, guilt, fear, criticism and anticipation. The greatest price, of course, is the knowledge that life is transient and that we, like all other creatures, will die; it is this knowledge that has molded human culture from its earliest days, spawning beliefs that serve to douse our fear.

Flamingos & Grebes

Watching a flamingo navigate the shallows of an ephemeral lake, one would surely conclude that it is closely related to storks, herons and ibis; yet, placing this bird on the tree of avian evolution has long been a subject of controversy. By late in the 20th Century, fossil evidence from across the globe seemed to suggest that flamingos are a hybrid between shorebirds and waterfowl; indeed, they harbor the same feather lice that are found on ducks and geese. The fossil evidence also revealed that, despite their current concentration in tropical and subtropical life zones, flamingo species were widely dispersed throughout temperate regions before the Pleistocene Ice Age.

Then, within the past decade, molecular geneticists discovered that flamingos are, in fact, most closely related to grebes. This finding sent a shock wave through the world of avian biologists, especially given the obvious differences in the appearance and behavior of those bird groups. Nevertheless, morphologic studies have since confirmed that flamingos and grebes are, indeed, sister species.

While controversy continues to smolder, this story highlights the role of science throughout human history. Originally convinced that we lived on a flat landscape around which the sun, moon and stars revolved, we later learned, through scientific investigation, that we live on a smallish globe on an outer band of a massive galaxy that is one of billions of galaxies in our Universe. Despite the constant protestations of religious groups, we have also unraveled the mysteries of evolution, plate tectonics, genetics and astrophysics, among others. Throughout this ongoing process of discovery, human assumptions and beliefs have repeatedly dissolved in the wake of scientific progress.